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Glossary
of Quality Terms
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
A
1.5 -sigma shifts and drifts: The theory that
over time any process in control will shift from its target by
a value of up
to 1.5 sigma. Allowing for the 1.5 sigma shift results in the
generally accepted six sigma value of 3.4 defects per million
opportunities. Ignoring the 1.5 sigma shift results in a six
sigma value of 2 defects per billion opportunities.
Academic Quality
Improvement Project (AQIP): A forum for institutions
to review each other's action projects.
Acceptable quality
level (AQL): In a continuing series of lots,
a quality level that, for the purpose of sampling inspection,
is the limit of satisfactory process average.
Acceptance number: The maximum number of defects or defectives
allowable in a sampling lot for the lot to be acceptable.
Acceptance sampling: Inspection of a sample
from a lot to decide whether to accept that lot. There are two
types: attributes
sampling and variables sampling. In attributes sampling,
the
presence
or absence of a characteristic is noted in each of the units
inspected. In variables sampling, the numerical magnitude
of a characteristic is measured and recorded for each inspected
unit; this involves reference to a continuous scale of some
kind.
Acceptance sampling plan: A
specific plan that indicates the sampling sizes and associated
acceptance or nonacceptance
criteria
to be used. In attributes sampling, for example, there are
single, double, multiple, sequential, chain and skip-lot
sampling plans.
In variables sampling, there are single, double and sequential
sampling plans. (For detailed descriptions of these plans,
see the standard ANSI/ISO/ASQ A3534-2, Statistics—Vocabulary
and Symbols—Statistical Quality Control.)
Accreditation: Certification
by a duly recognized body of the facilities, capability, objectivity,
competence and integrity
of an agency, service, or operational group or individual
to
provide the specific service or operation needed.
Accuracy: The characteristic
of a measurement that tells how close an observed value is to
a true value.
Action plan: A specific method or process to
achieve the
results called for by one or more objectives. May be
a simpler version
of a project plan.
Active data gathering: A method for
gathering data that involves approaching respondents to get
information.
Actively solicited customer feedback: Proactive
methods for obtaining customer feedback such as calling customers
on
the telephone
or inviting customers to participate in focus groups.
Activity
network diagram: An arrow diagram used in planning
and managing processes and projects.
Advanced Product Quality
Planning (APQP): Segment
of QS-9000 process that uses tools to offer the
opportunity to get
ahead of problems and solve them before the problems
affect the
customer.
Aesthetics: A dimension of quality
that refers to subjective sensory characteristics such as
taste, sound, look,
and smell.
Affinity diagram: A management tool
used to organize information (usually gathered during a brainstorming
activity).
Alignment: The actions taken to
ensure a process or activity supports the organization's strategy,
goals
and objectives.
American Association for
Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA): An organization that
formally recognizes
another organization's
competency to perform specific tests, types
of tests or calibrations.
American Customer
Satisfaction Index (ACSI): Released for the first
time in October 1994, an economic
indicator and
cross
industry measure of the satisfaction
of U.S. household customers with
the quality of the goods and services
available to them—both
those goods and services produced within
the United States and those provided
as imports from foreign firms that have substantial
market shares or dollar sales. The ACSI
is co-sponsored by the
University of Michigan Business School,
ASQ and the CFI Group.
American National
Standards Institute (ANSI): ANSI is a private, nonprofit
organization
that administers
and
coordinates
the
U.S. voluntary standardization and
conformity assessment system. It
is the United States' member body in
the International Organization for
Standardization, known as
ISO.
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT): The world's largest
technical
society for nondestructive
testing (NDT)
professionals.
American Society for
Quality (ASQ): A professional, not-for-profit association
that develops,
promotes and applies quality
related information and technology
for
the private sector, government
and academia. The Society serves more
than 108,000 individuals and 1,100
corporate members in the
United States and
108 other countries.
American Society
for Quality Control (ASQC): Name of the Society
from 1946 through the
middle of
1997; then
changed
to ASQ.
American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM): Not-for-profit organization
that provides a forum
for the development
and publication of voluntary consensus
standards for materials, products,
systems and services.
American Society
for Training and Development (ASTD): A membership organization
providing
materials, education and support related
to workplace learning and performance.
American standard code for information
interchange (ASCII): Basic computer
characters accepted
by all American machines
and many
foreign ones.
Analysis of means (ANOM): A statistical procedure
for troubleshooting industrial processes
and analyzing the results of experimental
designs with factors at fixed levels.
It provides
a
graphical display of data. Ellis R.
Ott developed the procedure
in 1967 because he observed that nonstatisticians
had difficulty
understanding
analysis of variance. Analysis of means
is easier for quality practitioners
to use because
it is
an extension
of the
control chart. In 1973, Edward G. Schilling
further extended the
concept, enabling analysis of means
to be used with non-normal distributions
and attributes data where the normal
approximation to the binomial distribution
does not apply.
This is referred
to as analysis
of means for treatment effects.
Analysis
of variance (ANOVA): A basic statistical technique
for analyzing experimental data.
It subdivides the
total variation of a data set into
meaningful component parts
associated with
specific sources of variation in
order to test a hypothesis on
the parameters of the model or to
estimate variance components. There are three
models: fixed, random
and mixed.
Anderson-Darling test
for normality: P-value<0.05= not normal,
normal=P-value>0.05
Annuity relationship: This occurs
when a business receives many repeat
purchases
from
a customer.
The income is
received steadily
over time from a single customer.
Appraisal
cost: The cost involved in ensuring an organization is
continually striving
to conform to customers' quality
requirements.
Arrow diagram: A
planning tool to diagram a sequence of events
or activities
(nodes) and
the interconnectivity
of such nodes.
It is used for scheduling and especially
for determining the critical path
through
nodes.
AS9100: An international
quality management standard for the aerospace
industry
published by the Society
of Automotive
Engineers;
also published by other organizations
worldwide, as EN9100 in Europe
and JIS Q 9100 in Japan.
The standard
is controlled
by
the International Aerospace Quality
Group (see listing).
Assessment: A systematic process of collecting and analyzing data
to determine
the current,
historical or projected
status of an organization.
Assignable cause: A
name for the source of variation in a process
that is not
due to
chance and therefore
can be
identified
and
eliminated. Also called "special
cause."
Association for
Quality and Participation
(AQP): Affiliate
organization
of the American Society
for Quality (ASQ)
dedicated to improving
workplaces through quality
and participation practices.
Assurance: A dimension of service quality that refers
to the
knowledge and courtesy
of employees
and their
ability
to inspire
trust and confidence.
Attribute
data: Go/no-go information. The control
charts based on
attribute data
include percent
chart, number
of affected
units chart, count chart,
count per unit chart, quality
score
chart and demerit chart.
Attributes, method of: Measurement of quality by the method
of attributes consists
of
noting the
presence (or absence)
of some
characteristic (attribute)
in each of the units
under consideration
and counting
how many units
do (or
do
not) possess it.
Example: go/no-go gauging
of a
dimension.
Audit: The
inspection and examination of a
process
or quality system
to ensure compliance
to requirements.
An audit can
apply to an entire
organization or may be specific
to
a function, process
or production step.
Automotive
Industry Action Group (AIAG): The originator
and sole
source of the
QS-9000 series
of standards.
ASQ's Automotive
Division
maintains a liaison to
this group.
Availability: The ability
of a product to be in
a state to perform
its designated
function
under
stated
conditions
at
a given time.
Average
chart: A control chart in which the subgroup
average,
X-bar,
is used
to evaluate
the stability
of the process
level.
Average outgoing
quality (AOQ): The expected
average quality
level of
outgoing product
for a given value
of incoming
product quality.
Average outgoing quality limit (AOQL): The maximum
average
outgoing quality
over all
possible levels
of incoming
quality for a given
acceptance sampling
plan and disposal
specification.
Average run lengths
(ARL): On a control
chart, the
number of
subgroups
expected
to be inspected
before
a shift
in magnitude takes
place.
Average
sample number (ASN): The
average
number of sample
units
inspected per
lot in reaching
decisions to
accept or reject.
Average total
inspection
(ATI): The average
number of units
inspected per
lot, including
all units
in rejected
lots
(applicable
when the procedure
calls for
100% inspection
of rejected
lots).
Balanced scorecard: A new management concept
that helps managers at all levels monitor their results in their
key areas.
Baldrige Award: See "Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award."
Baseline measurement: The beginning
point, based on an evaluation of the output over a period of
time, used to determine the
process parameters prior to any improvement effort; the basis
against
which change is measured.
Benchmarking: An improvement process
in which a company measures its performance against that
of best in class companies, determines
how those companies achieved their performance levels and
uses the information to improve its own performance. The subjects
that can be benchmarked include strategies, operations, processes
and procedures.
Benefit-cost analysis: An examination of
the relationship between the monetary cost of implementing
an improvement
and the monetary
value of the benefits achieved by the improvement, both
within the same time period.
Best practice: A
superior method or innovative practice that contributes to
the improved performance
of an organization,
usually recognized as "best" by other peer
organizations.
Big Q, Little Q: A
term used to contrast the difference between managing for quality
in all business processes
and products
(big Q) and managing for quality in a limited capacity—traditionally
only in factory products and processes (little q).
Bilateral
tolerance: Both an upper specification limit
and a lower specification limit simultaneously expressed
for
a single
specified parameter. The characteristic must fall above
the lower specification limit and below the upper specification
limit.
Also called "bilateral tolerance" and "two-sided
alternative." Given by: nominal +_ tolerance. (Quality
Council of Indiana)
Binomial distribution (double specification
limit): A discrete probability that applies
to random samples for
attributes
data that are each identified in terms of one of two
attribute classifications,
such as "go" and "no go," or "conforming" and "nonconforming." This
distribution underlies p charts and np charts. (Quality
Council of Indiana)
Black Belt (BB): Full-time
team leader responsible for implementing process improvement
projects—define,
measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC) or define,
measure, analyze, design
and verify (DMADV)—within the business to drive
up customer satisfaction levels and business productivity.
Blemish: An
imperfection severe enough to be noticed but that should not
cause any real impairment with respect
to intended
normal or reasonably foreseeable use (see also "defect," "imperfection" and "nonconformity").
Block diagram: A diagram that shows the operation,
interrelationships and interdependencies of components in a system.
Boxes,
or blocks (hence the name), represent the components;
connecting lines
between the blocks represent interfaces. There are
two types
of block diagrams: a functional block diagram, which
shows a system's subsystems and lower level products
and their
interrelationships and which interfaces with other
systems; and a reliability
block
diagram, which is similar to the functional block diagram
except that it is modified to emphasize those aspects
influencing reliability.
Board of Standards Review
(BSR): An American National Standards Institute board
responsible for the approval
and withdrawal
of American National Standards.
Body of knowledge
(BOK): The prescribed aggregation of knowledge in a particular
area an individual is
expected
to have mastered
to be considered or certified as a practitioner.
Bottom line: The essential or salient point; the primary or
most important consideration. Also,
the line at
the bottom of a financial
report that shows the net profit or loss.
Brainstorming: A technique teams use to generate ideas on a particular subject.
Each person in
the team is
asked to
think
creatively
and write down as many ideas as possible. The
ideas are not discussed or reviewed until after
the brainstorming
session.
Breakthrough improvement: A dynamic,
decisive movement to a new, higher level of performance.
BS 7799: British commerce, government and industry
stakeholders wrote BS 7799 to address information
security management
issues, including fraud, industrial espionage
and physical disaster.
May become ISO standard.
Business
process reengineering (BPR): The concentration on
the improvement of business
processes that
will deliver outputs
that
will achieve results meeting the firm's
objectives, priorities and mission.
C
C chart:
See "count chart."
Calibration: The comparison of
a measurement instrument or system of unverified accuracy to
a measurement instrument or system
of known accuracy to detect any variation from the required
performance specification.
Capability analysis: The
statistical comparison of the actual performance of a process
with its
specification limits. "Capable" systems
perform completely within specification limits as established
by customer requirements.
Capability maturity model: A framework
that describes the key elements of an effective software process.
It's an evolutionary
improvement path from an immature process to a mature, disciplined
process. The CMM covers practices for planning, engineering and
managing software development and maintenance. When followed,
these key practices improve the ability of organizations to meet
goals for cost, schedule, functionality and product quality.
Cascading: The
continuing flow of the quality message down to, not through,
the next level of
supervision until it
reaches all
workers. Same concept as "deploying."
Cause: An identified
reason for the presence of a defect or problem.
Cause and
effect diagram: A tool for analyzing process dispersion.
It is also referred to as the "Ishikawa diagram," because
Kaoru Ishikawa developed it, and the "fishbone diagram," because
the complete diagram resembles a fish skeleton. The diagram
illustrates the main causes and subcauses leading to an effect
(symptom).
The cause and effect diagram is one of the "seven tools
of quality." (See listing).
Centerline: A line on a
graph that represents the overall average (mean) operating
level of the process.
Central tendency: The tendency
of data gathered from a process to cluster toward a middle value
somewhere
between the high
and low values of measurement.
Certification: The result
of meeting the established criteria set by an accrediting or
certificate granting organization.
Certified mechanical inspector
(CMI): An ASQ certification.
Certified quality auditor (CQA):
An ASQ certification.
Certified quality auditor (CQA)-biomedical: An ASQ certification.
Certified quality auditor (CQA)-hazard
analysis and critical control point (HACCP): An ASQ certification.
Certified quality engineer (CQE): An ASQ certification.
Certified quality improvement associate
(CQIA): An ASQ certification.
Certified quality manager: An ASQ certification.
Certified quality technician (CQT): An ASQ certification.
Certified reliability engineer (CRE): An ASQ certification.
Certified Six Sigma Black Belt (CSSBB): An ASQ
certification.
Certified software quality engineer
(CSQE): An ASQ certification.
Chain
of customers: A philosophy that espouses the idea
that each worker's "customer" is
the next worker in the chain of
people who produce a finished product
or
service.
Chain reaction: A chain
of events described by W. Edwards
Deming:
improve quality,
decrease costs, improve productivity,
increase
market with better quality and
lower price, stay
in business, provide jobs and provide
more jobs.
Chain sampling plan: In acceptance sampling, a plan in which the criteria
for acceptance
and rejection
apply
to the cumulative
sampling results for the current
lot and one or more
immediately preceding lots.
Champion: A business leader or senior manager who ensures that
resources
are available
for training
and projects,
and who
is involved in project tollgate
reviews; also an executive
who supports
and addresses Six Sigma organizational
issues.
Change agent: An individual
from within or outside an organization
who facilitates
change
within
the organization. May or
may not be the initiator of
the
change effort.
Change management: The process of bringing planned change
to an organization.
Change management usually
means leading an
organization through a series
of steps
to meet a defined goal.
Characteristic: The factors, elements or measures that
define and differentiate
a process, function,
product,
service or
other entity.
Chart: A
tool for organizing, summarizing and depicting
data in graphic form.
Charter: A written commitment approved by management
stating the scope
of authority for an improvement
project or team.
Checklist: A
tool used to ensure all important steps
or actions
in an operation
have been
taken. Checklists
contain
items
important or relevant
to an issue or situation.
Checklists are often confused with
check sheets
(see
individual entry).
Check sheet: A
simple data recording device. The check
sheet is custom
designed by the
user, which
allows
him or her to
readily interpret the
results. The check
sheet is one
of the "seven
tools of quality." (See
listing). Check sheets
are often confused
with checklists (see
individual entry).
Chi square tests: Compares
actual data to expected
results. The
test verifies
or rejects
a null
hypothesis, which
assumes no
significant difference
between the actual
and expected data.
Classification
of defects: The listing of possible
defects of
a unit, classified
according
to
their seriousness.
Note: Commonly used
classifications:
class
A, class B, class
C, class D; or
critical, major,
minor and
incidental; or critical,
major
and
minor. Definitions
of these classifications
require
careful preparation
and
tailoring
to the product(s)
being sampled to enable
accurate
assignment of a defect
to the
proper classification.
A separate acceptance
sampling plan is
generally applied
to each class of defects.
Closed-loop corrective
action (CLCA): A
sophisticated engineering
system
designed to document,
verify and diagnose
failures, recommend
and initiate
corrective action,
provide follow-up
and maintain comprehensive
statistical
records.
Code of
conduct: Expectations of behavior
mutually
agreed on by
a team.
Co-efficient
of variation w/formula: The ratio
of the standard
deviation to
the mean. Since
the standard
deviation and
the mean of a
data set have the same
units, the
coefficient
of
variation
(denoted by CV)
will
be a unitless
measure. CV=s/.
Common causes: Causes
of variation that
are inherent
in a process
over time.
They affect
every outcome
of the process
and everyone
working in the
process (see
also "special
causes").
Company culture: A system of values,
beliefs
and
behaviors inherent
in a company.
To optimize business
performance,
top management
must define and
create the necessary
culture.
Complaint
tracking: Collecting data,
disseminating
data to appropriate
persons for
resolution, monitoring complaint
resolution
progress and communicating
results.
Compliance: The state of
an organization
that meets
prescribed
specifications,
contract terms,
regulations
or standards.
Computer aided design (CAD): Software used
by architects,
engineers,
drafters and
artists to
create precision
drawings or
technical illustrations.
CAD software
can
be used
to create
two-dimensional
(2-D) drawings
or
three-dimensional
(3-D) models.
Computer aided engineering
(CAE): A broad
term
used by the
electronic
design
automation
industry
for
the use
of computers
to design,
analyze and
manufacture
products and
processes.
CAE includes
CAD (see listing)
and computer
aided manufacturing
(CAM),
which is the
use of computers
for managing
manufacturing
processes.
Concurrent engineering
(CE): A way
to reduce cost,
improve quality
and
shrink
cycle
time by simplifying
a product's
system of life
cycle tasks
during
the early concept
stages.
Confidence
interval, chi-square
test: The probability
value associated
with a
confidence
interval.
It is often
expressed as
a percentage.
Conflict
resolution: The management
of a conflict
situation
to arrive at a
resolution
satisfactory
to all parties.
Conformance: An affirmative
indication
or judgment
that a product
or service
has met
the requirements
of a relevant
specification,
contract
or regulation.
Conformitè Europeënne
Mark (CE Mark): Conformity European
Union mark. The European Union created the CE Mark to regulate
the goods sold within its borders. The mark represents
a manufacturer's
declaration products comply with the EU's New Approach Directives.
These directives apply to any country that
sells products
within the EU.
Consensus: A state
in which
all the
members
of a group support
an action
or decision,
even if
some
of them
don't fully
agree
with it.
Consultant: An individual
who
has experience
and expertise
in applying
tools
and techniques
to resolve
process
problems
and who
can advise
and facilitate
an organization's
improvement
efforts.
Consumer: The external
customer
to
whom a product
or
service is
ultimately
delivered;
Also
called
end
user.
Consumer's
risk: Pertains
to
sampling
and
the
potential
risk
that
bad
product
will
be
accepted
and
shipped
to
the
consumer.
Continuous flow
production: Means
that items
are produced
and moved
from one
processing step
to the
next one
piece at
a time.
Each process
makes only
the one
piece that
the next
process needs,
and the
transfer batch
size is
one.
Continuous
improvement (CI): Sometimes called
continual improvement.
The ongoing
improvement of
products, services
or processes
through incremental
and breakthrough
improvements.
Continuous
process improvement
(CPI): Provides
a framework
for organizations
to make
incremental process
improvements, even
in those
processes that
are considered
to be
in good
operating condition.
It is
based on
the philosophy
that organizations
can always
make improvements.
Continuous
quality improvement
(CQI): A
philosophy and
attitude for
analyzing capabilities
and processes
and improving
them repeatedly
to achieve
the objective
of customer
satisfaction.
Continuous
sampling plan: In acceptance
sampling, a
plan, intended
for application
to a
continuous flow
of individual
units of
product, that
involves acceptance
and rejection
on a
unit by
unit basis
and employs
alternate periods
of 100%
inspection and
sampling, the
relative amount
of 100%
inspection depending
on the
quality of
submitted product.
Continuous sampling
plans usually
require that
each t
period of
100% inspection
be continued
until a
specified number,
i, of
consecutively inspected
units are
found clear of defects.
Note: For
single level
continuous sampling
plans, a
single d
sampling rate
(for example,
inspect 1
unit in
5 or
1 unit
in 10)
is used
during sampling.
For multilevel
continuous sampling
plans, two
or more
sampling rates
may be
used: The
rate at
any time
depends on
the quality
of submitted
product.
Contrition: Forgiveness for
error or
mistake.
Control: State in
which all
special causes
of variation
have been
removed from
a process.
Processes held
in control
are monitored,
usually by
means of
a control
chart, so
that corrective
action can
be taken
if special-cause
variation returns.
Control
chart: A
chart with
upper and
lower control
limits on
which values
of some
statistical measure
for a
series of
samples or
subgroups are
plotted. The
chart frequently
shows a
central line
to help
detect a
trend of
plotted values
toward either
control limit.
Control
limits: The
natural boundaries
of a
process within
specified
confidence
levels, expressed
as the
upper control
limit (UCL)
and the
lower control
limit (LCL).
Control
plan (CP): A document
that describes
the required
characteristics
for
the quality
of a
product
or
service, including
measures
and
control methods.
Control
process: A
process
involving
gathering
process
data,
analyzing
process
data,
and using
this information
to make
adjustments
to
the process.
Coordinate
measuring
machine
(CMM): A
device
that
dimensionally
measures
3-D
products,
tools
and
components
with
an
accuracy
approaching
0.0001
in.
Corrective
action: The
implementation
of
solutions
resulting
in
the
reduction
or
elimination
of
an
identified
problem.
Corrective
action
recommendation
(CAR): The
full
cycle
corrective
action
tool
that
offers
ease
and
simplicity
for
employee
involvement
in
the
corrective
action/process
improvement
cycle.
Correlation
(statistical): A
measure
of
the
relationship
between
two
data
sets
of
variables.
Cost
of
poor
quality
(COPQ): The
costs
associated
with
providing
poor
quality
products
or
services.
There
are
four
categories
of
costs:
internal
failure
costs
(costs
associated
with
defects
found
before
the
customer
receives
the
product
or
service),
external
failure
costs
(costs
associated
with
defects
found
after
the
customer
receives
the
product
or
service),
appraisal
costs
(costs
incurred
to
determine
the
degree
of
conformance to
quality
requirements)
and
prevention
costs
(costs
incurred
to
keep
failure
and
appraisal
costs
to
a
minimum).
Cost
of
quality
(COQ): A
term
coined
by
Philip
Crosby
referring
to the
cost
of
poor
quality.
Cost
savings
vs.
cost
avoidance: Monetary
objectives
of
improvement
projects.
Cost
savings, recovering
money
lost
due
to
quality
problems,
is
usually
the
more
urgent
objective
early
in
quality
improvement
programs.
Cost
avoidance,
preventing
future
losses,
becomes
more
important later
in
an
implementation.
Cost/benefit
analysis: Quantitatively
evaluating
the
costs
and
benefits
of
a
particular
decision,
program,
project,
or
activity.
Considering
categories
of
benefits
and
costs,
measuring
them,
and
totaling
their
effects
over time.
Count
chart: A
control
chart
for
evaluating
the
stability
of
a
process
in
terms
of
the
count
of
events
of
a
given
classification occurring
in
a
sample.
Count
per
unit
chart: A
control
chart
for
evaluating
the
stability
of
a
process
in
terms
of
the
average
count
of
events
of
a
given
classification
per
unit
occurring
in a
sample.
Critical processes: Processes that present serious
potential dangers to human life, health and the environment or
that risk the loss of very large sums of money or customers.
Criticality: A term that refers to how often a
failure will occur, how easy it is to diagnose, and whether it
can be fixed.
Crosby,
Philip (deceased): The founder and chairman of the board of
Career IV, an executive management consulting firm. Crosby
also founded Philip Crosby Associates Inc. and the Quality
College. He wrote many books including Quality Is Free, Quality
Without
Tears, Let's Talk Quality, and Leading: The Art of Becoming
an Executive. Crosby, who originated the zero defects concept,
was
an ASQ Honorary Member and past president.
Cross functional: A term used to describe a process or an activity that crosses
the boundary between functions. A cross functional
team consists of individuals from more than one organizational
unit or function.
Cross pilot: See "scatter
diagram."
CTQs: Element of a process or practice that has a direct impact on
its perceived quality. (Steve Littleton) -or-
The measurable
characteristics of a product or process that are crucial
to customer satisfaction.
Cultural resistance: A form
of resistance based on opposition to the possible social and
organizational consequences
associated with change.
Culture change: A major shift
in the attitudes, norms, sentiments, beliefs, values, operating
principles and
behavior of an
organization.
Culture, organizational: A common set
of values, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions and accepted behaviors
shared
by individuals within
an organization.
Cumulative sum control chart (CUSUM): A control chart on which the plotted value is the cumulative
sum
of deviations of successive
samples from a target value. The ordinate of each
plotted point represents the algebraic sum of the
previous
ordinate and the
most recent deviations from the target.
Current good
manufacturing practices (CGMP): Regulations enforced by the
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
for food and chemical
manufacturers and packagers.
Customer: See "external
customer" and "internal
customer."
Customer co-production: The participation
of a customer in the delivery of a service product.
For example,
in many restaurants
it is not uncommon for customers to fill their
own drinks.
Customer delight: The result of delivering
a product or service that exceeds customer expectations.
Customer
needs, expectations: Needs, as defined by customers, which
meet their basic requirements and
standards. (Steve
Littleton)
Customer rationalization: The process of
reaching an agreement between marketing and operations
as to which
customers
add the greatest advantage and profits over time.
Customer
relationship management (CRM): A strategy used to learn
more about customers' needs and behaviors
to
develop stronger
relationships with them. It brings together information
about
customers, sales, marketing effectiveness, responsiveness
and market trends. It helps businesses use technology
and human
resources to gain insight into the behavior of
customers and the value
of those customers.
Customer satisfaction (CS): The
result of delivering a product or service that meets customer
requirements.
Customer-supplier model (CSM): A model depicting
inputs flowing into a work process that, in turn,
add value
and produce
outputs delivered to a customer. Also called customer-supplier
methodology.
Customer supplier partnership: A long-term
relationship between a buyer and supplier characterized
by teamwork
and mutual
confidence. The supplier is considered an extension
of the buyer's organization.
The partnership is based on several commitments.
The buyer provides long-term contracts and uses
fewer suppliers.
The supplier implements
quality assurance processes so incoming inspection
can be minimized. The supplier also helps the buyer
reduce
costs
and improve
product and process designs.
Cycle time: The elapsed
time between the start and completion of a task or an entire
process; for example,
in order
processing it can be the time between receipt and
delivery of an order.
Cycle time reduction: Speeding
up the time it takes to complete a process from start to
finish.
D
Data: A
set of collected facts. There are two basic kinds of numerical
data: measured or variable data, such as "16
ounces," "4 miles" and "0.75 inches," and
counted or attribute data, such as "162 defects."
Data management: The process by which the reliability, timeliness,
and accessibility of an organization's database are assured.
D
chart: See "demerit chart."
Decision matrix: A matrix
used by teams to evaluate problems or possible solutions.
After a matrix is drawn to evaluate
possible solutions, for example, the team lists them in the
far left vertical
column. Next, the team selects criteria to rate the possible
solutions, writing them across the top row. Third, each possible
solution is rated on a scale of 1 to 5 for each criterion,
and the rating is recorded in the corresponding grid. Finally,
the
ratings of all the criteria for each possible solution are
added to determine its total score. The total score is then
used to
help decide which solution deserves the most attention.
Deduction: An approach to theory development based on modeling.
Defect: A product's or service's
nonfulfillment of an intended requirement or reasonable expectation
for use, including
safety considerations. There are four classes of defects:
class:
- very serious, leads directly to severe injury or catastrophic
economic
loss; class
- serious, leads directly to significant
injury or significant economic loss; class
- major, is related
to major problems with respect to intended normal
or reasonably
foreseeable
use; and class
- minor,
is related to minor problems with respect to intended normal
or reasonably
foreseeable
use (see
also "blemish," "imperfection" and "nonconformity").
Defective: A defective unit; a unit of product
that contains one or more defects with respect to the quality
characteristic(s)
under consideration.
Defects per million opportunities
(DPMO): The actual number of defects occurring divided by the
total number
of opportunities
for a defect and multiplied by 1 million. Also referred
to as
ppm (parts per million).
Degrees of freedom: A parameter
in the t, F, and x2 distributions. It is a measure of the amount
of information
available
for estimating the population variance, s2. It is
the number of independent
observations minus the number of parameters estimated.
Delighter: A feature of a product or service that a customer does not
expect to receive but that gives
pleasure to
the customer when received.
Demerit chart: A control
chart for evaluating a process in terms of a demerit (or quality
score),
in other
words, a
weighted sum
of counts of various classified nonconformities.
Deming cycle: Sometimes
called the Shewhart cycle (see "plan-do-check-act
cycle").
Deming Prize: Award given annually
to organizations that, according to the award
guidelines, have
successfully applied companywide
quality control based on statistical quality
control and will keep up with it in the future.
Although
the award
is named
in honor of W. Edwards Deming, its criteria are
not specifically
related to Deming's teachings. There are three
separate divisions for the award: the Deming
Application Prize,
the Deming Prize
for Individuals and the Deming Prize for Overseas
Companies. The award process is overseen by the
Deming Prize Committee
of
the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers
in Tokyo.
Dependability: The degree to which
a product is operable and capable of performing its required
function at
any randomly chosen time during its specified
operating
time,
provided
that
the product
is available at the start of that period. (Nonoperation
related influences are not included.) Dependability
can be expressed
by the ratio: time available divided by (time
available + time required).
Deployment: Dispersion, dissemination, broadcasting
or spreading of a communication throughout
an organization, downward and
laterally.
Design of experiments (DOE): A branch
of applied statistics dealing with planning, conducting,
analyzing and interpreting
controlled
tests to evaluate the factors that control
the value of a parameter or group of parameters.
Design for manufacture (DFM): The principle of
designing products so that they are cost
effective
and easy
to make.
Design for Six Sigma (DFSS): See "DMADV."
Designing
in quality vs. inspecting in quality: See "prevention
vs. detection."
Desired quality: The additional features and benefits
a customer discovers when
using a
product or service
that
leads to increased
customer satisfaction. If it is missing,
a customer may become dissatisfied.
Deviation: In numerical data sets, the difference or distance of an individual
observation
or data value
from the center
point (often the mean) of the set
distribution.
DFSS (Design for Six Sigma): A systematic
methodology utilizing tools, training,
and measurements
to enable us to design
products and processes that meet
customer expectations and can be
produced
at Six Sigma quality levels. (Steve
Littleton)
Diagnosis: The activity
of discovering the cause(s) of quality deficiencies;
the process
of investigating
symptoms,
collecting
and analyzing data, and conducting
experiments to test theories
to determine the root
cause(s) of deficiencies.
Diagnostic
journey and remedial journey: A two-phase investigation
used by
teams to solve
chronic
quality problems. In the
first phase, the diagnostic
journey, the team journeys from the
symptom of a chronic problem
to its cause. In the second
phase, the
remedial journey, the team
journeys from the cause to its remedy.
Discreet data: Data that
are counted instead of measured.
Only a finite
number of values
are possible.
Dispersion: The degree of scatter of data, usually
about an average
value,
such as
the median.
Dissatisfiers: The features or functions a customer
expects that either are
not present or are present
but not adequate;
also
pertains to employees'
expectations.
Distribution
(statistical): The amount of potential
variation in the outputs
of a process,
typically
expressed by its
shape, average or standard
deviation.
DMADV: A
data driven quality strategy for
designing
products and processes,
it is
an integral part
of a Six Sigma
quality initiative.
It consists
of five interconnected
phases: define, measure,
analyze,
design and verify.
DMAIC (define, measure, analyze, improve,
and control): A
process for continued
improvement. It
is systematic, scientific,
and
fact based. This
closed-loop process
eliminates
unproductive
steps,
often focuses on
new measurements,
and applies
technology for
improvement. (Steve Littleton)
Dodge-Romig sampling
plans: Plans
for acceptance sampling
developed
by Harold
F. Dodge and
Harry G. Romig.
Four sets of
tables were published
in
1940:
single sampling
lot tolerance
tables, double
sampling lot
tolerance tables, single
sampling
average outgoing
quality
limit tables
and double sampling
average outgoing
quality limit
tables.
DOE (design of experiments)
- Full factorial: Balanced,
designed experiments that test each possible combination
of levels that can be formed
from the input factors.
- Fractional factorial: Experiments
that use only a balanced portion of the full factorial array.
A fraction of the runs required
by a full factorial experiment are completed to obtain
reasonable estimates of the main factors and the lower order interactions.
- RSM (response surface method): A technique that enables the
experimenter to find the point of highest yield (KPOV), given
at least
two significant factors (KPIVs).
- EVOP (evolutionary operation): A continuous
improvement technique that allows an operator to make minor
adjustments
to keep a process centered at the optimum using small design
of experiments.
- Screening:
Type of DOE used to determine which factors impact
the process the most.
- Characterization: Type of DOE
used to produce the Y=f(x) equation using only the most important
factors.
- Optimization: Type of DOE used to find the optimum
operating point of a process.
- Trial & error:
Traditional method of design optimization that addresses
each parameter
individually, ending when
a feasible design is found. Generally considered
to be inefficient and ineffective
at achieving an optimal design, particularly
for complex design problems.
- OFAT (one factor at a time):
Methodology in which all factors are held constant and then
varied one at a
time.
- Replication: Duplicating an experiment using the same experimental
unit. Treatment combinations are not repeated
consecutively. Produces enough data to investigate error of the experiment.
- Repetition: Performing several experimental runs consecutively
using the same treatment combinations. Produces
enough data to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the experimental
results.
- Blocking: A grouping technique to
eliminate factors that are of no interest to an experiment.
Isolates
and minimizes the impact of factors that could otherwise obscure the main effects.
- Center points: Center points repeat or replicate a run at
the center or midpoint of all quantitative
factor levels. Often run at current factor levels, they are used to detect accuracy
of
linear fit.
- Randomization: Process that
reduces the impact of noise and helps prevent the confounding
of effects. Experimental
units are assigned to treatments randomly instead of systematically or according
to a standard order.
- Control factors:
Input variables that can be set and maintained, or controlled.
- Noise factors: Input variables that are not controlled.
- Response:
The output of a process. Also called dependent variables.
- Lack
of fit: The variation due to model inaccuracy. If repeated
response
values
are observed at
certain settings of the predictors (the factors), the unexplained variation
can be divided into
two parts: lack of fit and pure
error. Lack of fit = SSResiduals – SSPure
Error.
- Fit: The Y value obtained
from the prediction equation.
- Residuals: The difference between the predicted
Y value and the observed Y output value.
- Taguchi
signal to noise: Ratio developed by Genichi Taguchi to
reflect variability
caused
by noise in the response of a system. Noise factors interfere with the intended
response, or the "signal";
thus, the larger the S/N
ratio, the more robust the performance.
DPMO (defects Per million opportunities): The actual number
of defects occurring divided by the total number of opportunities
for a defect and multiplied by 1million. Also referred to as
ppm (parts per million).
DPU: Defects per unit. Calculated by dividing the total number
of defects by the number of units or products.
Driving forces: Forces that tend to change a situation in desirable
ways.
E
Effect: What results after an action has been
taken; the expected or predicted impact when an action is to
be taken or is proposed.
Effectiveness: The state of having
produced a decided upon or
desired effect.
Efficiency: The ratio of the output to the
total input in a process.
Efficient: A term describing a process
that operates effectively while consuming the minimum amount
of resources (such as
labor and time).
Eighty-twenty
(80-20): A term referring
to the Pareto principle, which was first defined by J. M. Juran
in
1950. The principle
suggests most effects come from relatively few causes;
that is, 80% of the effects come from 20% of the possible
causes.
Electric
data interchange (EDI): The electronic
exchange of data between customers and suppliers and vice versa.
Employee
involvement (EI): A practice within an
organization whereby employees regularly participate in making
decisions on how their work areas operate, including making
suggestions
for
improvement, planning, goal setting and monitoring
performance.
Empowerment: A condition whereby employees
have the authority to make decisions and take action
in their
work areas
without prior approval. For example, an operator
can stop a production
process if he or she detects a problem, or a
customer service representative can send out a replacement
product if a
customer calls with a problem.
EN
46000: Medical
device quality management systems standard. EN 46000 is technically
equivalent
to ISO 13485:1996,
an international medical device standard. So
few differences exist between the
two that if an organization is prepared to
comply with one, it may easily comply with the other
as well.
EN 9100: An international quality management
standard for the aerospace industry (see AS9100).
Engineering
analysis: The process of applying engineering
concepts to the design of a product,
including
tests such as heat transfer
analysis, stress analysis, or analysis of the
dynamic behavior of the system being designed.
Entitlement:
As good as a process can get without capital investment.
Environmental
Auditors Registration Association (EARA): Merged with the Institute
of Environmental
Management
and the Institute
of Environmental Assessment to form IEMA.
Error: A cause of defects. Errors originate from
problems with workers, materials,
machines, methods,
measurement,
and nature.
Ethics: The practice of applying
a code of conduct based on moral principles
to day-to-day
actions
to balance
what is fair to individuals
or organizations and what is right
for society. \
Excited
quality: The additional benefit a customer receives when a
product
or service goes beyond
basic expectations.
Excited quality "wows" the
customer. If it is missing, the customer
will still be satisfied.
Exciter: See "delighter."
Expectations: Customer perceptions about how an organization's products
and services
will
meet
their specific needs
and requirements.
Expected
quality: The minimum benefit a customer expects to receive from
a product
or service.
Experimental
design: A formal plan that details the specifics
for
conducting an experiment,
such as which
responses,
factors, levels, blocks, treatments
and
tools are to be used.
Experimental
training techniques: Training that is hands-on and
provides the recipients
of training
the opportunity
to experience
in some manner the concepts
that are being taught.
External
customer: A person or organization that receives
a
product, service
or information but
is not part of
the organization
supplying
it. (See also "internal
customer.")
External
failure: Nonconformance
identified by the external
customers.
External
validation: Using benchmarking
as a way to
ensure that a firm's
current practices
are comparable
to those
being used
by benchmark firms.
F
Facilitation: Facilitation
is the design and management of processes and structures that
enable groups to succeed in
their missions. Facilitation helps ensure the following:
- The
right resources are in hand and are being used.
- Useful
information is generated, shared, and used.
- Useful
information is generated, shared, and used.
- Quality
decisions are made.
- Quality
decisions are implemented.
- Desired
outcomes are realized.
Facilitator: A specifically trained person who functions as a teacher,
coach and moderator for
a group,
team or organization.
Failure: The inability of an item, product or service to perform
required functions on demand due to one or more defects.
Failure
cost: The cost resulting from the occurrence of defects.
Failure
mode analysis (FMA): A procedure to determine which
malfunction symptoms appear immediately before or after a failure
of a critical parameter in a system. After all the possible causes
are listed for each symptom, the product is designed to eliminate
the problems.
Failure mode effects analysis (FMEA): A procedure in which each
potential failure mode in every subitem of an item is analyzed
to determine its effect on other subitems and on the required
function of the item.
Failure
mode effects and criticality analysis (FMECA): A procedure
that is performed after a failure mode effects analysis to classify
each potential failure effect according to its severity and probability
of occurrence.
Fault
tree analysis: An analytical tool that graphically renders
the combination of faults that lead to the failure of a system.
Feedback: Communication from customers about how delivered products
or services compare with customer expectations.
Fishbone
diagram: See "cause and effect diagram."
Fitness
for use: A term used to indicate that a product or service
fits the customer's defined purpose for that product or service.
Five
Ss: Five terms beginning with "S" utilized to
create a workplace suited for visual control and lean production.
Seiri means to separate needed tools, parts, and instructions
from unneeded materials and to remove the latter. Seiton means
to neatly arrange and identify parts and tools for ease of use.
Seiso means to conduct a cleanup campaign. Seiketsu means to
conduct seiri, seiton, and seiso at frequent, indeed daily, intervals
to maintain a workplace in perfect condition. Shitsuke means
to form the habit of always following the first four Ss.
Five
whys: A technique for discovering the root causes of a problem and
showing the
relationship of causes by repeatedly
asking the question, "Why?"
Flowchart: A graphical representation of the steps in a process. Flowcharts
are drawn
to better understand processes. The flowchart
is one of the "seven tools of quality."
Focus
group: A group, usually of 8 to 10 persons, that is invited
to discuss an existing or planned product, service or process.
Force
field analysis: A technique for analyzing the forces that
aid or hinder an organization in reaching an objective. An arrow
pointing to an objective is drawn down the middle of a piece
of paper. The factors that will aid the objective's achievement,
called the driving forces, are listed on the left side of the
arrow. The factors that will hinder its achievement, called the
restraining forces, are listed on the right side of the arrow.
Fourteen
(14)
Points: W. Edwards Deming's 14 management practices to help
companies
increase their quality and productivity:
- create
constancy of purpose for improving products and services
- adopt
the new philosophy
- cease
dependence on inspection to achieve quality
- end the
practice of awarding business
on
price alone; instead, minimize total cost by working
with a single supplier
- improve
constantly and forever every
process
for
planning, production and service
- institute
training on the job
- adopt
and institute leadership
- drive
out fear
- break
down barriers between staff areas
- eliminate
slogans, exhortations and targets for the workforce
- eliminate
numerical quotas for the workforce and numerical
goals for
management
- remove
barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship,
and eliminate the annual rating or
merit system
- institute
a vigorous program of education and self-improvement for
everyone
- put everybody
in the company to work to accomplish
the transformation.
Frequency
distribution (statistical): A table that graphically
presents a large volume of data so the central tendency (such
as the average or mean) and distribution are clearly displayed.
FS 9100: A quality management standard developed by the FS 9000
Association for the financial services industry.
f-test
w/requirements: Compares different populations to check
for a shift in variation.
Function: A group of related actions contributing to a larger
action.
Funnel
experiment: An experiment that demonstrates the effects
of tampering. Marbles are dropped through a funnel in an attempt
to hit a flat surfaced target below. The experiment shows that
adjusting a stable process to compensate for an undesirable result
or an extraordinarily good result will produce output that is
worse than if the process had been left alone.
G
Gain
sharing: A reward system that shares the monetary results of
productivity gains among owners and employees.
Gantt
chart: A type of bar chart used in process planning and
control to display planned work and finished work in relation
to time.
Gap
analysis: The comparison of a current condition to the desired
state.
Gatekeeper: A timekeeper; in team meetings, a designated individual who
helps in monitoring the team's use of allocated
time.
Gage
Repeatability & Reproducibility (GR&R).:
The evaluation of a gauging instrument's accuracy by determining
whether the
measurements taken with it are repeatable (there is close
agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of
the output for
the same value of the input under the same operating conditions)
and reproducible (there is close agreement among repeated
measurements of the output for the same value of input
made under the same
operating conditions over a period of time).
Geometric
dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T): A method to
minimize production costs by showing the dimensioning
and tolerancing on a drawing while considering the functions
or
relationships
of part features.
Goal: A broad statement describing a desired future condition or
achievement without being specific
about how much
and when.
Go/no-go:
State of a unit or product. Two parameters are possible: go
(conforms to specifications) and
no-go
(does
not conform
to specifications).
Good
laboratory practices (GLP) or 21 CFR, part 58: 144 requirements
that control the procedures
and
operations of toxicology
laboratories.
Good
manufacturing practices (GMP) or 21 CFR, parts 808, 812, and
820: Requirements governing
the quality
procedures
of medical
device manufacturers.
Grant,
Eugene L.(deceased): Grant was part of a small team of professors
assigned during
World
War II to
introduce statistical quality control concepts
to improve manufacturing
production.
He wrote many textbooks, including Principles
of
Engineering Economy and Statistical Quality
Control, editions of
which
he
co-authored with W. Grant Ireson and Richard
S. Leavenworth. He was an ASQ Honorary Member
and
a professor of
economics engineering at Stanford University.
Green
Belt (GB): A business team leader responsible for managing
projects and implementing improvement
in his
or her organization.
An employee of an organization who has been
trained on the improvement methodology of
Six Sigma and
will lead
a process
improvement
or quality improvement team as part of his
or her full-time job.
Group
dynamic: The interaction (behavior) of individuals within a
team meeting.
Groupthink: A situation in which critical information is withheld from
the team because
individual
members censor
or restrain
themselves, either because they believe
their concerns are not worth discussing
or because they are afraid of confrontation.
H
Hawthorne
effect: The concept that every change results (initially, at
least) in increased productivity.
Hazard
analysis and critical control point (HACCP): A quality
management system for effectively and efficiently ensuring
farm to table food safety in the United States. HACCP regulations
for various sectors are established by the United States Department
of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration.
Heijunka: The act of leveling the variety or volume of items produced
at a process over a period of time. Used to avoid
excessive batching of product types and volume fluctuations,
especially
at a pacemaker process.
Highly
accelerated life test (HALT): A process developed to uncover
design defects and weaknesses
in electronic and
mechanical
assemblies
using a vibration system combined with rapid high and low
temperature changes. The purpose of HALT is to optimize
product reliability
by identifying the functional and destructive limits of
a product. HALT addresses reliability issues at an early stage
in product
development.
Highly
accelerated stress audits (HASA): A technique in which a sample
of parts (as opposed to 100% of
the production
as
in HASS, below) is taken and subjected to stresses similar
to the
levels and duration for HALT.
In monitoring the production process, the intent of HASA is
to detect slight shifts
in the attributes
of the product so corrective actions can be taken and
implemented before the performance of outgoing product approaches
the
specifications.
Highly
accelerated stress screening (HASS): A technique for production
screening that rapidly
exposes process
or production
flaws in
products. Its purpose is to expose a product to optimized
production screens without affecting product reliability.
Unlike HALT,
HASS uses nondestructive stresses of extreme temperatures
and temperature
change rates with vibration.
Histogram: A graphic summary of variation in a set of data. The pictorial
nature
of the histogram lets
people
see patterns
that
are difficult to detect in a simple table of numbers.
The histogram is one of the "seven tools of
quality."
Hoshin
planning: Breakthrough planning. A Japanese strategic planning
process in which
a company develops
up to four
vision statements that indicate where the company
should be in the
next five years. Company goals and work plans
are developed based
on the vision statements. Periodic audits are
then conducted to monitor progress.
House
of quality: A product planning matrix, somewhat resembling
a house, that is developed
during quality
function deployment
and shows the relationship of customer requirements
to the means of achieving these requirements.
I
Imagineering: Developing in the mind's eye a process without waste.
Imperfection: A quality characteristic's departure from
its intended level or state without any association to
conformance
to specification
requirements or to the usability of a product or service
(see also "blemish," "defect" and "nonconformity").
Improvement: The positive effect of a process change effort.
In-control
process: A process in which the statistical measure being
evaluated is in a state of statistical
control; in
other words, the variations among the observed sampling
results can
be attributed to a constant system of chance causes
(see also "out-of-control
process").
Incremental
improvement: Improvements that are implemented on a continual
basis.
Indicators: Established measures used to determine how well an organization
is meeting its customers'
needs
as well as
other
operational and financial performance expectations.
Inputs: The products, services, material and so forth obtained from
suppliers and used to
produce
the outputs
delivered
to customers.
Inspection: Measuring, examining, testing and gauging one or more characteristics
of a product
or service
and comparing
the results with specified requirements to
determine whether conformity
is achieved for each characteristic.
Inspection
cost: The cost associated with inspecting a product to ensure
it meets the
internal or
external customer's needs
and requirements; an appraisal cost.
Inspection,
curtailed: Sampling inspection in which inspection of the
sample is stopped
as
soon as
a decision is certain.
Thus, as soon as the rejection number
for defectives is reached, the
decision is certain and no further inspection
is necessary. In single sampling, however,
the whole
sample is usually
inspected in order to have an unbiased
record of quality history. This
same practice usually is followed for
the first sample in double or multiple sampling.
Inspection
lot: A collection of similar units or a specific quantity
of similar
material
offered for inspection
and
acceptance at
one time.
Inspection,
normal: Inspection in accordance with a sampling plan that
is used under
ordinary circumstances.
Inspection,
100%: Inspection of all the units in the lot or batch.
Inspection,
reduced: Inspection in accordance with a sampling plan
requiring smaller
sample sizes
than those
used in
normal inspection. Reduced inspection
is used in some inspection systems
as an economy
measure
when
the level
of submitted
quality is
sufficiently good and other stated
conditions apply.
Note: The criteria
for determining
when quality
is "sufficiently good" must
be defined in objective terms
for any given inspection system.
Inspection,
tightened: Inspection in accordance with a sampling
plan that
has stricter
acceptance criteria
than
those used
in normal inspection. Tightened
inspection is used in some
inspection systems as a protective measure
when
the level of submitted quality
is sufficiently poor.
It is expected
the higher
rate of rejections
will lead suppliers to improve
the quality of submitted
product. Note:
The criteria
for determining
when
quality is "sufficiently
poor" must be defined
in objective terms for any
given
inspection system.
Instant
pudding: A term used to
illustrate an obstacle to
achieving
quality
or the supposition that
quality and productivity
improvement
are achieved quickly through
an affirmation of
faith rather than through
sufficient effort and education.
W. Edwards
Deming used
this term, which was initially
coined by James Bakken
of Ford
Motor Co.,
in his
book Out of
the Crisis.
Intermediate
customers: Organizations or individuals
who operate
as distributors, brokers
or dealers
between the supplier
and
the consumer/end user.
Internal
customer: The recipient (person or department) within
an organization
of another
person's or
department's output
(product, service or
information) (see also "external
customer").
Internal
failure: A product
failure that
occurs before
the product
is delivered to external
customers.
International
Aerospace Quality Group: A
cooperative organization
of the
global aerospace
industry
that is mainly
involved in quality, cost
reduction
and process improvement
efforts.
International
Organization for Standardization,
known as ISO: A network of
national standards institutes
from 140 countries
working in partnership
with international
organizations,
governments,
industry, business and consumer
representatives
to
develop and publish
international
standards.
Acts as a bridge
between public
and private sectors.
Interrelationship
digraph: A management tool that
depicts the
relationship among factors
in a complex
situation.
Also called
a "relations
diagram."
Intervention: The action
of a team
facilitator
when interrupting
a
discussion
to state
observations about
group dynamics
or the team
process.
Ishikawa
diagram: See "cause
and effect
diagram."
Ishikawa,
Kaoru
(deceased): A pioneer
in
quality
control
activities
in
Japan.
In 1943,
he
developed
the cause
and effect
diagram.
Ishikawa,
an
ASQ
Honorary
Member,
published
many
works,
including
What
Is Total Quality
Control?,
The Japanese
Way,
Quality Control
Circles
at Work
and
Guide
to Quality
Control.
He
was a
member
of the
quality
control
research
group
of the Union
of
Japanese
Scientists
and Engineers
while
also working
as
an assistant
professor
at the
University
of Tokyo.
ISO
14000: An
environmental management
standard
related
to
what organizations
do
that affects
their
physical
surroundings.
In
the
process of
being
made
compatible
with
ISO
9000.
ISO
9000
series
standards: A
set of
international
standards
on
quality
management
and
quality
assurance
developed
to
help
companies
effectively
document
the
quality
system
elements
to
be
implemented
to
maintain
an
efficient
quality
system.
The
standards,
initially
published
in
1987,
are
not
specific
to
any
particular
industry,
product
or
service.
The
standards
were
developed
by
the
International
Organization
for
Standardization,
known
as
ISO,
a
specialized international
agency
for
standardization
composed
of
the
national
standards
bodies
of
91
countries.
The
standards
underwent
major
revision
in
2000
and
now
include
ISO
9000:2000
(definitions),
ISO
9001:2000
(requirements)
and
ISO
9004:2000
(continuous
improvement).
ISO/TS
16949: The
International Organization
for Standardization,
known as
ISO, international
technical specification
for quality
management systems,
with particular
requirements for
the application
of ISO
9001:2000 for
automotive production
and relevant
service part
organization. Now
in its
second edition.
J
JIS
Q 9100: An international quality management standard for the
aerospace industry (see AS 9100).
Joint
Committee for the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations
(JCAHO): JCAHO sets standards for, evaluates and accredits
nearly
18,000 healthcare organizations and programs in the United
States.
Juran,
Joseph M.: The chairman emeritus of the Juran Institute and
an ASQ Honorary Member. Since 1924, Juran has
pursued a
varied career in management as an engineer, executive, government
administrator,
university professor, labor arbitrator, corporate director
and consultant. Specializing in managing for quality, he
has authored
hundreds of papers and 12 books, including Juran's Quality
Control Handbook, Quality Planning and Analysis (with F.
M. Gryna) and
Juran on Leadership for Quality.
Juran
trilogy: Three managerial processes identified by J.M. Juran
for use in managing for
quality: quality planning,
quality control and quality improvement.
Just-in-time
(JIT) manufacturing: An optimal material requirement planning
system
for a manufacturing process in which there
is little or no manufacturing material inventory on hand
at the
manufacturing site and little or no incoming inspection.
Just-in-time
training: The provision of training only when it is needed
to all but eliminate the loss of knowledge
and skill
caused by a lag between training and use.
K
Kaizen: A Japanese term that means gradual unending improvement by
doing little things better and setting and achieving
increasingly higher standards. Masaaki Imai made the term famous
in his book,
Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success.
Kanban: A Japanese term for one of the primary tools of a just-in-time
system.
It maintains an orderly and efficient
flow of materials
throughout the entire manufacturing process. It is usually
a printed card that contains specific information such
as part
name, description and quantity.
Key
performance indicator (KPI): A statistical measure of how well
an organization is
doing. A KPI may measure a company's
financial performance or how it is holding up against customer
requirements.
Key
process: A major system level process that supports the mission
and satisfies major consumer requirements.
Key
results area: A major category of customer requirements that
is critical
for the organization's success.
Kruskal-Wallis
test: The Kruskal-Wallis test is a nonparametric test to compare
three
or more samples. It tests the
null hypothesis that all populations have identical distribution
functions
against the alternative hypothesis that at least
two of the samples differ
only with respect to location (median), if at all.
It
is the analogue to the F-test used in analysis of
variance. While
analysis of variance tests depend on the assumption
that all populations
under comparison are normally distributed, the Kruskal-Wallis
test places no such restriction on the comparison.
It is
a logical extension of the Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney
Test (see listing).
L
Leader: An individual who is recognized by others as a person they
will follow.
Leadership: An essential part of a quality improvement effort.
Organization leaders must establish a vision, communicate that
vision to those in the organization and provide the tools and
knowledge necessary to accomplish the vision.
Lean
manufacturing: Initiative focused on eliminating all waste
in manufacturing
processes. Principles of lean include zero
waiting time, zero inventory, scheduling (internal customer
pull instead
of push system), batch to flow (cut batch sizes), line balancing
and cutting actual process times.
Life
cycle stages: Design, manufacturing, assembly, installation,
operation and shutdown
of product.
Listening
post: An individual who, by virtue of his or her potential
for having contact with customers,
is designated
to collect,
document and transmit pertinent feedback to a central
collection authority within the organization.
Lost
customer analysis: Analysis conducted to determine why a customer
or
a class of customers was lost.
Lot: A defined quantity of product accumulated under conditions
considered uniform for
sampling purposes.
Lot,
batch: A definite quantity of some product manufactured under
conditions of production that are
considered
uniform.
Lot
quality: The value of percentage defective or of defects per
hundred units in a lot.
Lot
size (also referred to as N): The number of units in the lot.
Lot
tolerance percentage defective (LTPD): Expressed in percentage
defective, the poorest quality
in an individual lot that
should be accepted.
Note: LTPD is used as
a basis for some inspection systems and is commonly associated
with a
small consumer's risk.
Lower
control limit (LCL): Control limit for points below the central
line in
a control
chart.
M
Maintainability: The probability that a given maintenance action for an item
under given usage conditions can be performed
within a stated time interval when the maintenance is performed
under stated conditions using stated procedures and resources.
Maintainability has two categories: serviceability (the ease
of conducting scheduled inspections and servicing) and repairability
(the ease of restoring service after a failure).
Malcolm
Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA): An award established
by the
U.S. Congress in 1987 to raise awareness of quality management
and recognize U.S. companies that have implemented successful
quality management systems. Two awards may be given annually
in each of five categories: manufacturing company, service
company, small business, education and healthcare. The award
is named
after the late Secretary of Commerce Malcolm Baldrige, a proponent
of quality management. The U.S. Commerce Department's National
Institute of Standards and Technology manages the award, and
ASQ administers it.
Management
review: A periodic meeting of management at which it reviews
the status and effectiveness
of the organization's
quality management system.
Manager: An individual charged with the responsibility for managing
resources and processes.
Master
Black Belt (MBB): Six Sigma or quality experts responsible
for strategic implementations
within the business. The
Master Black Belt is qualified to teach other Six Sigma
facilitators the methodologies, tools and applications in all
functions
and levels of the company and is a resource for utilizing
statistical process control within processes.
Matrix: A
planning tool for displaying the relationships among various
data sets.
Mean: A measure of central tendency; the arithmetic average of all
measurements in a data set.
Mean
time between failures (MTBF): The average time interval between
failures for repairable product
for a defined
unit of measure; for example, operating hours,
cycles and miles.
Measure: The criteria, metric or means to which a comparison is made
with output.
Measurement: The act or process of quantitatively comparing results with
requirements.
Median: The middle number or center value of a set of data in which
all the data are arranged
in sequence.
Metric: A standard for measurement.
Metrology: The science of weights and measures or of measurement. A system
of weights
and measures.
MIL-Q-9858A: A military standard that describes quality program requirements.
MIL-STD-45662A: A military standard that describes the requirements for
creating
and maintaining
a calibration system for measurement
and test equipment.
MIL-STD-105E: A military standard that describes the sampling procedures
and
tables for inspection
by attributes.
Mission: An organization's purpose.
Mode: The value occurring most frequently in a data set.
Muda: Japanese for waste. Any activity that consumes resources
but creates
no value for
the customer.
Multivariate
control chart: A control chart for evaluating
the stability
of a process
in terms
of the levels
of two or more
variables or characteristics.
Myers-Briggs
type indicator (MBTI): A methodology and an instrument
for identifying
an individual's
personality
type based on Carl
Jung's theory of personality
preferences.
N
n: The number of units in a sample.
N: The number of units in a population.
National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): An agency of
the U.S. Department
of Commerce that develops and
promotes
measurements, standards and technology. NIST manages the
Malcolm Baldrige
National Quality Award.
Natural
team: A team of individuals drawn from a single work group;
similar to a process improvement
team except that
it is not cross functional in composition and it is usually
permanent.
Next
operation as customer: The concept of internal customers in
which every operation is both a receiver
and a provider.
Nominal
group technique: A technique, similar to brainstorming, used
by teams to generate ideas on a particular
subject.
Team members are asked to silently come up with as
many ideas as
possible, writing them down. Each member is then
asked to share one idea,
which is recorded. After all the ideas are recorded,
they are discussed and prioritized by the group.
Nonconformity: The nonfulfillment of a specified requirement (see also "blemish," "defect" and "imperfection").
Nondestructive
testing and evaluation (NDT, NDE): Testing and evaluation methods
that do not damage
or destroy
the product
being tested.
Nonlinear
parameter estimation: A methodology whereby the arduous, labor-intensive
and distinctly
frustrating
task
of multiparameter
model calibration can be carried out automatically
under the control of a computer.
Nonparametric
tests: Nonparametric tests are often used in place of their
parametric counterparts
when certain
assumptions
about
the underlying population are questionable.
For example, when comparing two independent
samples,
the Wilcoxon
Mann-Whitney test (see listing) does not
assume the difference between
the
samples is normally distributed, whereas
its parametric
counterpart, the two-sample t-test, does.
Nonparametric tests may be,
and often are, more powerful in detecting
population differences when certain assumptions are not
satisfied. All tests involving
ranked data (data that can be put in order)
are nonparametric.
Nonvalue
added: A term that describes a process step or function that
is not required
for
the direct achievement
of process
output. This step or function is identified
and examined for potential
elimination.
Norm
(behavioral): Expectations of how a person or persons will
behave in a given
situation
based on
established protocols, rules
of conduct or accepted social practices.
Normal
distribution (statistical): The charting of a data set in which
most
of the data points
are concentrated
around
the
average (mean), thus forming a bell
shaped curve.
Number
of affected units chart: A control chart for evaluating the
stability
of a process in
terms of
the total number
of units in a sample in which an
event of a given classification occurs.
O
Objective: A specific statement of a desired short term condition or achievement;
includes measurable end results
to be accomplished by specific teams or individuals within time
limits.
Operating
characteristic curve (OC curve): A graph to determine the probability
of accepting lots as a function of
the lots'
or processes' quality level when using various sampling plans.
There are three types: type A curves, which give the probability
of acceptance for an individual lot coming from finite production
(will not continue in the future); type B curves, which give
the probability of acceptance for lots coming from a continuous
process; and type C curves, which (for a continuous sampling
plan) give the long run percentage of product accepted during
the sampling phase.
Original
equipment manufacturer's (OEM): A company that uses product
components from one or more other
companies to build
a product that it sells under its own company name and brand.
Sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the company that supplies
the components.
Ott,
Ellis R. (deceased): An educator who devoted his career to
providing U.S. industry with statistical
quality control
professionals. In 1946, Ott became the chairman of the
mathematics department
at Rutgers University's
University College with one condition: that he could also consult
on and teach quality control.
His influence led the university to establish the Rutgers
Statistics
Center. Ott, an ASQ Honorary Member, developed the analysis
of means procedure and published many papers.
Out-of-control
process: A process in which the statistical measure being
evaluated is not in a state of statistical
control. In
other words, the variations among the observed sampling
results can be attributed to special circumstances
that have affected
the process in an unusual manner (see also "in-control
process").
Out
of spec: A term that indicates a unit does not meet a given
requirement.
Outputs: Products, materials, services or information provided to customers
(internal or external), from
a process.
P
Pareto
chart: A graphical tool for ranking causes from most significant
to least significant. It is based on the Pareto principle,
which was first defined by J. M. Juran in 1950. The principle,
named after 19th century economist Vilfredo Pareto, suggests
most effects come from relatively few causes; that is, 80%
of the effects come from 20% of the possible causes. The Pareto
chart is one of the "seven tools of quality."
Partnership/alliance: Both a strategy and a formal relationship between a supplier
and a customer that
engenders cooperation
for the benefit of both parties.
P
chart: See "percent
chart."
PDCA
cycle: See "plan-do-check-act cycle."
Percent
chart: A control chart for evaluating the stability of a process
in
terms of the percentage of the total number
of units
in a sample in which an event of a given classification
occurs. The percent chart is also referred to as a proportion
chart.
Performance
standard: The metric against which a complete action is compared.
Plan-do-check-act
(PDCA) cycle: A four-step process for quality improvement.
In the first step (plan), a plan
to effect improvement
is developed. In the second step (do), the plan is
carried out, preferably on a small scale. In the third
step (check),
the effects
of the plan are observed. In the last step (act),
the results are studied to determine what was learned and
what can
be predicted. The plan-do-check-act cycle is sometimes
referred
to as the
Shewhart cycle, because Walter A. Shewhart discussed
the concept in his
book Statistical Method From the Viewpoint of Quality
Control, and as the Deming cycle, because W. Edwards
Deming introduced
the concept in Japan. The Japanese subsequently called
it the Deming cycle. Also called the plan-do-study-act
(PDSA)
cycle.
P95'
P50' P10' P05' and so forth: The submitted quality in fraction
defective for which the probability of
acceptance is 0.95, 0.50,
0.10, 0.05, and so forth, for a given sampling
plan. Note: The exact value of P95' P50' Pl0' P05' and
so forth, depends
on whether "submitted
quality" relates to lot quality or process
quality.
Poka-yoke: Japanese term that means mistake-proofing. A poka-yoke device
is one that prevents incorrect
parts from
being made
or assembled or easily identifies a flaw or error.
Policy: An overarching plan (direction) for achieving an organization's
goals.
Precision: The aspect of measurement that addresses repeatability or consistency
when an identical
item is measured several
times.
Preventive
action: Action taken to remove or improve a process to prevent
potential
future
occurrences
of a nonconformance.
Prevention
cost: The cost incurred by actions taken to prevent a nonconformance
from
occurring.
Prevention
vs. detection: A term used to contrast two types of quality
activities.
Prevention
refers to activities
designed to prevent nonconformances
in products and services. Detection
refers to activities designed to detect
nonconformances already in products
and services. Another
phrase to describe this
distinction is "designing in quality
vs. inspecting in quality."
Probability
(statistical): A term referring to
the likelihood of occurrence of
an event, action
or item.
Probability
of rejection: The probability that a lot will be rejected.
Problem
solving: The act of defining a problem; determining the cause
of the problem;
identifying,
prioritizing
and selecting alternatives for
a solution; and implementing a solution.
Procedure: The steps in a process and how these steps are to be
performed for the
process to
fulfill customer's
requirements.
Process: A set of interrelated work activities characterized
by a set
of specific inputs
and value added tasks
that make up a procedure
for a set of specific outputs.
Process
average quality: Expected or average value
of process
quality.
Process
capability: A statistical measure of the inherent
process variability for
a given
characteristic.
The
most widely accepted
formula for process capability
is six
sigma.
Process
capability index: The value of the tolerance
specified
for
the characteristic
divided by the
process capability.
The several types of
process capability
indexes include the widely
used Cpk and Cp.
Process
control: The methodology for keeping
a process within
boundaries; minimizing
the variation of
a process.
Process
improvement: The application of
the plan-do-study-act
(PDSA)
philosophy to processes
to produce positive
improvement and
better meet the needs and
expectations of
customers (see "plan-do-check-act
cycle").
Process
improvement team: A structured
environment
often
made up of
cross functional
members who work
together
to improve
a process or
processes.
Process
kaizen: Improvements
made at an
individual process or in
a specific
area.
Sometimes
called "point
kaizen."
Process
management: The pertinent
techniques
and tools
applied to a process
to
implement
and improve process
effectiveness,
hold
the
gains and
ensure process integrity
in fulfilling
customer
requirements.
Process
map: A type of
flowchart
depicting
the
steps in
a process,
with
identification
of responsibility
for each
step
and the
key measures.
Process
owner: The person
who coordinates
the various
functions
and work
activities
at
all levels
of a
process, has
the authority
or
ability
to make
changes
in the
process
as
required
and manages
the
entire
process
cycle
to ensure
performance
effectiveness.
Process
performance
management
(PPM): The
overseeing of process
instances
to
ensure their
quality
and
timeliness. Can also
include
proactive
and
reactive
actions
to
ensure
a good
result.
Process
quality: The
value
of
percentage
defective
or
of
defects
per
hundred
units
in
product
from
a
given process.
Note:
The
symbols "p" and "c" are
commonly
used
to
represent
the
true
process
average
in
fraction
defective
or
defects
per
unit;
and "l00p" and "100c" the
true
process
average
in
percentage
defective
or
in
defects
per
hundred
units.
Process
reengineering: A
strategy directed
toward major
rethinking and
restructuring of
a process;
often referred
to as
the "clean
sheet of
paper" approach.
Production
part approval
process (PPAP): A Big
Three automotive
process that
defines the
generic requirements
for approval
of production
parts, including
production and
bulk materials.
Its purpose
is to
determine during
an actual
production run
at the
quoted production
rates whether
all customer
engineering design
record and
specification requirements
are properly
understood by
the supplier
and that
the process
has the
potential to
produce product
consistently meeting
these requirements.
Product
or service
liability: The
obligation of
a company
to make
restitution for
loss related
to personal
injury, property
damage or
other harm
caused by
its product
or service.
Product
warranty: An
organization's stated
policy that
it will
replace, repair
or reimburse
a buyer
for a
product in
the event
a product
defect occurrs
under certain
conditions and
within a
stated period
of time.
Profound
knowledge, system
of: Defined
by W.
Edwards Deming,
a system
that consists
of an
appreciation for
systems, knowledge
of variation,
theory of
knowledge and
understanding of
psychology.
Project
management: The
application of
knowledge, skills,
tools and
techniques to
a broad
range of
activities to
meet the
requirements of
the particular
project. Project
management knowledge
and practices
are best
described in
terms of
their component
processes. These
processes can
be placed
into five
process groups
(initiating, planning,
executing, controlling
and closing)
and nine
knowledge areas
(project integration
management, project
scope management,
project time
management, project
cost management,
project quality
management, project
human resource
management, project
communications management,
project risk
management and
project procurement
management).
Project
team: Manages
the work
of a
project. The
work typically
involves balancing
competing demands
for project
scope, time,
cost, risk
and quality,
satisfying stakeholders
with differing
needs and
expectations and
meeting identified
requirements.
Pull
system: An
alternative to
scheduling individual
processes, in
which the
customer process
withdraws the
items it
needs from
a supermarket,
and the
supplying process
produces to
replenish what
was withdrawn.
Used to
avoid push.
See also "kanban."
Q
QEDS
Standards Group: The U.S. Standards Group on Quality, Environment,
Dependability and Statistics consists
of the members and leadership of organizations concerned with
the development and effective use of generic and sector specific
standards on quality control, assurance and management; environmental
management systems and auditing, dependability and the application
of statistical methods.
Q9000
series: Refers to ANSI/ISO/ASQ Q9000 series of standards, which
is the verbatim American adoption
of the 2000 edition of
the ISO 9000 series standards.
QS-9000: A quality management standard developed by the Big Three Automakers
for the automotive
sector. Currently largely
replaced
by Technical Specification 16949 (ISO/TS 16949, see listing).
Quality: A subjective term for which each person has his or her own
definition. In technical usage, quality can have
two
meanings:
- the
characteristics of a product or service that bear on its
ability to satisfy stated or implied needs.
- a
product or service
free of deficiencies.
Quality
assurance/quality control (QA/QC): Two terms that have many
interpretations because of
the multiple definitions
for
the words "assurance" and "control." For
example, "assurance" can mean the act of giving
confidence, the state of being certain or the act of
making certain; "control" can
mean an evaluation to indicate needed corrective responses,
the act of guiding or the state of a process in which
the variability
is attributable to a constant system of chance causes.
(For a detailed discussion on the multiple definitions,
see ANSI/ISO/ASQ
A3534-2, Statistics--Vocabulary and Symbols--Statistical
Quality Control.) One
definition of quality assurance is: all the planned
and systematic activities implemented within the quality
system that can be demonstrated to provide confidence
a product or service
will fulfill requirements for quality. One definition
for quality control is: the operational techniques
and activities
used to
fulfill requirements for quality. Often, however, "quality
assurance" and "quality control" are
used interchangeably, referring to the actions performed
to
ensure the quality of a
product, service or process.
Quality
audit: A systematic, independent examination and review to
determine whether
quality activities
and related
results
comply with planned arrangements and whether these
arrangements are
implemented effectively and are suitable to achieve
the objectives.
Quality
circles: Quality improvement or self-improvement study groups
composed of a small number
of employees
(10 or fewer)
and their supervisor. Quality circles originated
in Japan, where they are called quality control
circles.
Quality
control: See "quality assurance/quality
control."
Quality
costs: See "cost
of poor quality."
Quality
engineering: The analysis of a manufacturing system at all
stages to maximize the quality
of the process itself
and
the products it produces.
Quality
Excellence for Suppliers of Telecommunications (QuEST) Forum: A partnership
of telecommunications
suppliers and
service providers with more than 130 members.
The QuEst Forum developed
TL 9000 (see listing).
Quality
function deployment (QFD): A structured method in which customer
requirements
are
translated into
appropriate technical
requirements for each stage of product
development and production.
The QFD process is often referred to
as listening to the voice of the customer.
Quality
loss function: A parabolic approximation of the quality loss
that occurs when
a quality characteristic deviates from
its target value. The quality loss
function is expressed in monetary units: the cost
of deviating
from the
target
increases
quadratically
the further the quality characteristic
moves from the target. The formula
used to compute
the quality
loss
function depends
on the type of quality characteristic
being
used. The quality loss function was
first introduced in this
form
by Genichi
Taguchi.
Quality
management (QM): The application of a quality management system
in managing
a process
to achieve
maximum customer
satisfaction at the lowest overall
cost to the
organization while continuing
to improve the process.
Quality
management system (QMS): A formalized system that documents
the
structure,
responsibilities and procedures
required
to
achieve effective quality management.
Quality
plan: A document or set of documents that describe the
standards,
quality
practices, resources
and processes
pertinent to a specific product,
service or project.
Quality
policy: An organization's general statement of its beliefs
about quality,
how quality will
come about
and what
is expected
to result.
Quality
score chart: A control chart for evaluating the stability
of a
process. The quality score
is the weighted
sum of the
count of events of various
classifications in which
each classification
is assigned a weight.
Quality
tool: An instrument or technique to support and
improve
the activities
of process
quality
management and improvement.
Quality
trilogy: A three-pronged approach to managing for quality.
The three
legs are quality
planning
(developing the products
and processes required
to meet customer needs),
quality
control
(meeting
product and process
goals) and quality
improvement
(achieving unprecedented
levels of performance).
Quincunx: A tool that creates frequency distributions. Beads tumble over
numerous horizontal
rows
of pins, which force
the beads to the right
or left. After a random
journey,
the
beads are dropped into
vertical slots.
After many beads are
dropped,
a frequency
distribution results.
In the classroom,
quincunxes
are often used to simulate
a manufacturing process.
The quincunx
was invented
by English scientist
Francis Galton
in the 1890s.
R
RAM: Reliability/availability/maintainability (see individual entries).
Random
cause: A cause of variation due to chance and not assignable
to any factor.
Random
sampling: A commonly used sampling technique in which sample
units are selected so that all combinations
of n units
under consideration have an equal chance of being selected
as the sample.
Range
(statistical): The measure of dispersion in a data set (the
difference between the highest and lowest
values).
Range
chart (R chart): A control chart in which the subgroup range,
R, is used to evaluate the stability of
the variability
within a process.
Red
bead experiment: An experiment developed by W. Edwards Deming
to illustrate it is impossible
to put employees
in rank order
of performance for the coming year based on their performance
during the past year because performance differences
must be attributed to the system, not to employees.
Four thousand
red
and white beads in a jar, 20% red, and six people are
needed for the experiment. The participants' goal is
to produce
white beads because the customer will not accept red
beads. One person
begins by stirring the beads and then, blindfolded,
selects a sample of 50 beads. That person hands the jar to
the
next person,
who repeats the process and so on. When everyone has
his or her sample, the number of red beads for each
is counted.
The
limits
of variation between employees that can be attributed
to the system are calculated. Everyone will fall within
the
calculated
limits of variation that could arise from the system.
The calculations will show that there is no evidence
one person
will be a better
performer than another in the future. The experiment
shows that it would be a waste of management's time
to try to
find out why,
say, John produced four red beads and Jane produced
15; instead, management should improve the system, making
it possible
for everyone to produce more white beads.
Reengineering: A breakthrough approach involving the restructuring
of an entire organization and its processes.
Registrar
Accreditation Board (RAB): A board that evaluates the competency
and reliability of registrars
(organizations
that
assess and register companies to the appropriate
ISO 9000 series standards and to the ISO 14000
environmental management
standard).
RAB provides ISO course provider accreditation.
Formed in 1989, RAB is governed by a board of directors
from
industry, academia
and quality management consulting firms and by
a joint oversight
board for those programs operated with the American
National Standards Institute (see listing).
Registration: The act of including an organization, product, service or
process in a compilation of
those having the
same or similar attributes.
Registration
to standards: A process in which an accredited, independent
third-party organization
conducts an on-site
audit of a company's operations against the
requirements of the standard
to which the company wants to be registered.
Upon
successful completion of the audit, the company
receives a certificate
indicating that it has met the standard requirements.
Regression
analysis: A statistical technique for determining the best
mathematical expression
describing
the functional
relationship between one response and one
or more independent variables.
Rejection
number: The smallest number of defectives (or defects) in the
sample or
samples under
consideration that will require
the rejection of the lot.
Reliability: The probability of a product's performing its intended function
under
stated conditions
without failure for a given
period of time.
Requirements: The ability of an item to perform a required function under
stated
conditions
for a stated
period
of time.
Results: The effects that relate to what is obtained by an organization
at the
conclusion of a time
period.
Right the first time: A term used
to convey the concept that it is
beneficial
and more
cost effective
to
take the necessary
steps up front to ensure a product
or service meets its requirements
than to
provide
a product or service
that
will need rework
or not meet customer needs. In other
words, an organization should
engage in defect prevention rather
than defect detection.
Robustness: The condition of a product or process design that remains
relatively
stable,
with
a minimum of variation,
even
though factors that influence operations
or usage, such as environment and
wear, are constantly
changing.
Romig,
Harry G. (deceased): An Honorary Member and founder of
ASQ who was
most widely known
for his
contributions in sampling. At
AT&T
Bell Laboratories, Romig and
Harold F. Dodge developed the Dodge-Romig
sampling tables, operating characteristics
for
sampling plans and other fundamentals.
Romig alone developed the first
sampling plans using variables
data and the concept
of average outgoing quality limit.
Later in his life, Romig was
a consultant and taught quality related
courses at several universities.
Root
cause: A factor that caused a nonconformance and should be
permanently eliminated
through process improvement.
Run
chart: A chart showing a line connecting numerous data
points
collected from
a process running over
a period of
time.
S
Sample: In acceptance sampling, one or more units
of product (or a quantity of material) drawn from a lot for purposes
of inspection to reach a decision regarding acceptance of the
lot.
Sample size: [n] The number of units in a sample.
Sample standard deviation chart (S chart): A control
chart in which the subgroup standard deviation, s, is used to
evaluate
the stability of the variability within a process.
Sampling
at random: As commonly used in acceptance sampling theory,
the process of selecting sample units so all units
under consideration
have the same probability of being selected.
Note: Actually,
equal probabilities are not necessary for random sampling--what
is necessary is that the probability of selection be ascertainable.
However, the stated properties of published sampling tables
are based on the assumption of random sampling with equal
probabilities. An acceptable method of random selection
with equal probabilities
is the use of a table of random numbers in a standard manner.
Sampling, double: Sampling inspection in which
the inspection of the first sample leads to a decision to accept
a lot,
reject it or take a second sample; the inspection of a
second sample,
when required, then leads to a decision to accept or to
reject the lot.
Sampling, multiple: Sampling inspection
in which, after each sample is inspected, the decision is made
to accept
a lot,
reject it or to take another sample; but there is a prescribed
maximum
number of samples, after which a decision to accept or
reject the lot must be reached.
Note: Multiple sampling
as defined
here has sometimes been called "sequential n sampling" or "truncated
sequential e sampling." The term "multiple
sampling" is
recommended by this standard.
Sampling, single: Sampling
inspection in which the decision to accept or to reject
a lot is based on the inspection
of a single
sample.
Sampling, unit: Sequential sampling inspection
in which, after each unit is inspected, the decision is made
to
accept a lot,
reject it or to inspect another unit.
Satisfier: A
term used to describe the quality level received by a customer
when a product or service meets
expectations.
Scatter diagram: A
graphical technique to analyze the relationship between two
variables. Two sets
of data
are plotted on
a graph, with the y-axis being used for the variable
to be
predicted
and the x-axis being used for the variable to make
the prediction. The graph will show possible relationships
(although two
variables might appear to be related, they might
not be: those who know
most about the variables must make that evaluation).
The scatter diagram is one of the "seven tools
of quality."
Scientific management/approach: A term referring
to the intent to find and use the best way to perform
tasks
to improve
quality, productivity and efficiency.
Scorecard: A scorecard is an evaluation device, usually in the form of
a questionnaire, that specifies
the
criteria customers will use to rate your business's
performance
in
satisfying
their
requirements.
Self-directed work team (SDWT): A type of team structure in which much of the decision making
regarding how
to handle the
team's
activities is controlled by the team members
themselves.
Service level agreement: A formal
agreement between an internal provider and an internal
receiver
(customer).
Seven tools of quality: Tools
that help organizations understand their processes to improve
them.
The tools are the cause
and effect diagram, check sheet, control
chart, flowchart, histogram,
Pareto chart and scatter diagram (see individual
entries).
Shanin, Dorian (deceased): An
Honorary Member of ASQ, Shanin developed a discipline
called
statistical
engineering.
He was in charge of quality control at
a larger division of
United
Technologies Corp. and later did consulting
for more than
900 organizations.
Shanin also was on the faculty of the
University of Chicago and wrote more than 100 articles
and several books.
Shewhart
cycle: See "plan-do-check-act
cycle."
Signal to noise ratio (S/N
ratio): A mathematical equation that
indicates
the magnitude of
an experimental effect
above the effect
of experimental error due to chance fluctuations.
Six Sigma: A methodology that provides businesses
with the tools to improve
the capability
of their business
processes. This increase
in performance and decrease in process
variation lead to defect reduction
and improvement
in profits, employee
morale
and quality
of product.
Six Sigma quality: A
term generally used to indicate a process is well
controlled,
(±6 sigma from the centerline
in a control chart). The term is
usually associated with Motorola,
which named one of its key operational
initiatives "Six
Sigma quality."
Software quality
assurance (SQA): A planned and systematic
approach
to
the evaluation
of the
quality of and
adherence to software
product standards, processes and
procedures. SQA includes the process
of assuring
that standards and procedures
are established
and are followed throughout the software
acquisition life cycle.
Special causes: Causes
of variation that arise because of special circumstances. They
are
not an inherent
part of a
process.
Special causes are also referred
to as
assignable causes (see also "common
causes").
Specification: A
document that states the requirements
to which
a given
product or
service must conform.
Sponsor: The
person who supports a team's plans, activities and outcomes;
the team's "backer."
Stages
of team growth: Four stages that
teams move through as they
develop maturity
over
time: forming,
storming,
norming and
performing.
Stakeholder: Any
individual, group or organization that will
have
a significant impact on
or will be significantly impacted
by the quality of the product
or service an organization
provides.
Standard: The metric, specification,
gage, statement, category,
segment, grouping, behavior,
event
or physical product
sample against which the outputs
of a process
are compared and declared
acceptable or unacceptable.
Standard deviation (statistical): A computed measure
of variability indicating
the
spread of the data
set around
the mean.
Standard work: A
precise description of each work activity specifying
cycle time,
takt
time (see
listing), the
work sequence of specific
tasks and the minimum inventory
of parts on hand needed to
conduct the
activity.
Statistical process
control (SPC): The application of
statistical techniques
to control a process.
The term "statistical
quality control" is
often used interchangeably
with "statistical
process control."
Statistical
quality control (SQC): The
application of statistical
techniques
to
control quality.
The term "statistical
process control" is
often used interchangeably
with "statistical
quality control," although
statistical quality control
includes acceptance sampling
as well as statistical
process control.
Statistics: A field that involves
the tabulating,
depicting and
describing of data sets;
a formalized body of
techniques characteristically
involving attempts to
infer the properties of a large
collection of data from
inspection of
a sample
of
the collection.
Strategic
planning: The process by which an organization
envisions its
future
and develops
strategies,
goals, objectives and
action plans to achieve
that future.
Stretch
goals: A set of goals designed to
position
the
organization to
meet future requirements.
Structural variation: Variation caused
by regular, systematic
changes in
output, such
as seasonal
patterns and long-term
trends.
Supplier: A source of materials, service
or
information
input provided
to a process.
Supplier quality assurance: Confidence
a supplier's
product or
service will fulfill
its customers'
needs.
This confidence
is
achieved by
creating a relationship
between the
customer and
supplier that
ensures the
product
will be fit
for use with
minimal corrective
action and
inspection. According
to J.
M. Juran, there
are nine primary
activities
needed:
- define product
and program
quality
requirements,
- evaluate
alternative suppliers,
- select
suppliers,
- conduct
joint quality planning,
- cooperate
with the
supplier during
the execution
of the contract,
- obtain
proof of conformance
to requirements,
- certify
qualified suppliers,
- conduct quality
improvement programs
as required
- create and use supplier
quality ratings.
Supply
chain: The
series
of suppliers
relating
to a given
process.
Surveillance: The continual
monitoring
of a process;
a type
of periodic
assessment
or audit
conducted
to determine
whether
a
process
continues to perform
to
a predetermined
standard.
Survey: The act
of
examining a process
or
of questioning a selected
sample
of
individuals to obtain
data
about a process,
product
or
service.
Symptom: An observable
phenomenon
arising
from
and
accompanying a defect.
System: A
group of
interdependent
processes
and
people
that
together
perform
a
common mission.
System
kaizen: Improvement
aimed at
an entire
value stream.
T
Taguchi Methods: The American Supplier Institute's
trademarked term for the quality engineering methodology developed
by Genichi Taguchi. In this engineering approach to quality control,
Taguchi calls for off-line quality control, on-line quality control
and a system of experimental design to improve quality and reduce
costs.
Takt time: The rate of customer demand. Takt is
the heartbeat of a lean system. Takt time is calculated by dividing
production
time by the quantity the customer requires in that time.
Tampering: Action taken to compensate for variation within the control
limits of a stable system. Tampering increases
rather
than decreases variation, as evidenced in the funnel experiment.
Task: A specific, definable activity to perform
an assigned piece of work, often finished within a certain time.
Team: A group of individuals organized to work
together to accomplish a specific objective.
Theory of constraints
(TOC): Also called constraints management, it is a set of tools
that examines the entire system
for continuous improvement. The current reality tree, conflict
resolution
diagram, future reality tree, prerequisite tree and
transition tree are
the five tools used in its ongoing improvement process.
TL
9000: A quality management standard for the telecommunications
industry built on ISO 9000. Its purpose is
to define
the requirements for the design, development, production,
delivery,
installation
and maintenance of products and services. Included
are cost and performance based measurements that measure
reliability and quality
performance of the products and services.
Tolerance: The maximum and minimum limit values a product may have and
still meet customer requirements.
Tooling and Equipment (TE)
Supplement: An interpretation of QS-9000 (see listing) developed
by the Big Three
automakers for tooling
and equipment suppliers.
Top-management commitment: Participation of the highest level officials in their organization's
quality improvement
efforts.
Their participation includes establishing and
serving on a quality committee, establishing
quality policies
and
goals, deploying
those goals to lower levels of the organization,
providing the resources and training lower
levels need to achieve
the goals,
participating in quality improvement teams,
reviewing progress organizationwide, recognizing those
who have performed
well and revising the current reward system
to reflect the importance
of achieving the quality goals.
Total productive
maintenance (TPM): A series of methods, originally pioneered
by Nippondenso
(a
member of
the Toyota group), to
ensure every machine in a production process
is always able to perform
its required tasks so that production is
never interrupted.
Total quality: A strategic integrated system
for achieving customer satisfaction that
involves all
managers and
employees and uses
quantitative methods to continuously improve
an organization's processes.
Total quality
control (TQC): A system that integrates quality development,
maintenance
and improvement
of the parts of
an organization. It helps a company economically
manufacture its
product and deliver
its services.
Total quality management
(TQM): A term initially coined by the Naval Air Systems
Command to
describe its Japanese
style
management
approach to quality improvement. Since
then, TQM has taken on many meanings.
Simply put,
it is a
management approach
to long-term
success through customer satisfaction.
TQM is based on the participation of
all members
of
an organization
in
improving
processes, products,
services and the culture in which they
work. The methods
for implementing this approach are
found in the teachings of such
quality leaders as Philip B. Crosby,
W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum,
Kaoru
Ishikawa
and Joseph M.
Juran.
Transaction data: The finite
data pertaining to a given event occurring in a process.
Examples are
the data
obtained from
an individual checking out groceries
(the grocery shopping process)
and the data obtained from testing
a machined component
(the final product inspection step
of the production process).
Tree
diagram: A management tool that depicts the hierarchy of tasks
and
subtasks needed
to complete
an objective.
The finished
diagram bears a resemblance to
a tree.
Trend: The graphical representation
of a variable's tendency, over
time, to
increase, decrease
or remain unchanged.
Trend control
chart: A control chart in which the deviation
of the subgroup
average,
X-bar,
from
an expected trend
in the process
level is used to evaluate the
stability of a process.
t-test: Assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically
different from
each other.
Use this analysis
if you want
to compare the means of two
groups.
Type I error: An incorrect
decision to reject something
(such as
a statistical hypothesis
or a lot of products)
when it
is acceptable.
Type II error: An incorrect decision
to accept something when it is
unacceptable.
U
U chart: Count per unit chart.
Unit: An object on which a measurement
or observation can be made.
Note: Commonly used in the sense
of a "unit of product,"the
entity of product inspected in order to determine whether
it is defective or nondefective.
Upper control limit (UCL): Control
limit for points above
the central line in a control chart.
V
Validation: The act of confirming a product or
service meets the requirements for which it was intended.
Validity: The ability of a feedback instrument to measure what it was
intended to measure; also, the degree to which inferences
derived from measurements are meaningful.
Value added: The
parts of the process that add worth from the perspective of
the external customer.
Value adding process: Activities that
transform input into a customer usable output. The customer
can be internal or
external to the organization.
Value chain management: Value-chain
analysis looks at every step—from
raw materials to the eventual end-user -- right down
to disposing of the packaging after use. The goal is to deliver
maximum value
to the end user for the least possible total cost. (Industry
Week)
Values: The fundamental beliefs that drive organizational
behavior and decision making.
Value stream: All activities,
both value added and nonvalue added, required to bring a product
from raw material
state into the
hands of the customer, bring a customer requirement
from order to delivery and bring a design from concept to
launch.
Value stream loops: Segments of a value stream
with boundaries broken into loops are a way to divide future
state implementation
into manageable pieces.
Value stream manager: Person
responsible for creating a future state map and leading door-to-door
implementation
of the
future state for a particular product family. Makes
change happen
across departmental and functional boundaries.
Value stream mapping: A pencil and paper tool used
in two stages:
- Follow a product's production
path from
beginning
to end
and draw a visual representation of every
process in the material and information flows.
- Then
draw a
future state
map of how
value should flow. The most important map
is the future state map.
Variable data: Measurement information.
Control charts based on variable data include average
(X-bar) chart,
range (R)
chart, and sample standard deviation (s) chart.
Variance: A change in a process or business practice
that may alter its expected outcome.
(Steve Littleton)
Variation: A change in data,
characteristic or function caused by one of four factors:
special
causes, common
causes, tampering
or structural variation (see individual
entries).
Verification: The act of determining whether
products and services conform to specific
requirements.
Vertical deployment: A term
denoting that all of the levels of the management of
a firm are
involved
in
the firm's
quality efforts.
Virtual team: Remotely
situated individuals affiliated with a common organization,
purpose or project
who conduct their
joint
effort via electronic communication.
Vision: An overarching statement of the way an
organization wants to be;
an ideal
state
of being
at a future
point.
Vital few, useful many: A
term used by Joseph M. Juran to describe his
use of
the Pareto
principle, which
he first defined in
1950. (The principal was used much
earlier in economics
and
inventory
control methodologies.) The principle
suggests most effects come from
relatively few causes;
that is,
80% of the
effects come
from 20% of the possible causes.
The 20% of the possible causes
are referred
to
as the "vital few"; the
remaining causes are referred to
as the "useful many." When
Juran first defined this principle,
he referred to the remaining causes
as
the "trivial many," but
realizing that no problems are
trivial in quality assurance, he
changed
it to "useful
many."
Voice of the customer: The expressed requirements and
expectations of
customers relative
to products or services,
as documented
and disseminated to the members
of the providing organization.
W
Waste: Any activity that consumes resources and
produces no added value to the product or service a customer
receives.
Weighed voting: A way to prioritize a list of issues,
ideas or attributes by assigning points to each item based
on its relative
importance.
Whisker: From box plot, displays minimum and maximum
observations within 1.5 IQR (75th to 25th percentile span)
from either 25th
or 75th percentile. Outlier are those that fall outside of
the 1.5 range.
Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney test: Used to test the
null hypothesis that two populations have identical distribution
functions
against the alternative hypothesis that the two distribution
functions
differ only with respect to location (median), if at all.
It does not require the assumption that the differences
between the two samples are normally distributed. In many applications,
it is used in place of the two sample t-test when the normality
assumption is questionable. This test can also be applied
when
the observations in a sample of data are ranks, that is,
ordinal data rather than direct measurements.
Work team: A
team comprising members from one work unit. Also called a "natural
team."
World-class quality: A term used to indicate a standard of
excellence: best of the best.
X
X-bar chart: Average chart.
Z
Zero defects: A performance standard and methodology
developed by Philip B. Crosby that states if people commit themselves
to watching details and avoiding errors, they can move closer
to the goal of zero.
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